From Ancient Flatbreads to Modern Crackers: A History of a Staple Snack

The history of crackers, flat and dry baked biscuits, dates back to ancient times. Early versions of crackers can be traced to ancient flatbreads like lavash, pita, matzo, and crispbread. These flatbreads were baked until dry and crisp, making them easier to store and transport, especially during times when fresh food was hard to come by. In many ancient societies, such as in the Middle East and Mediterranean regions, flatbreads were an essential part of daily life. They were not only consumed as staples but also played a vital role in religious and ceremonial contexts. Matzo, for instance, is still used in Jewish traditions during Passover, symbolizing the bread eaten by the Israelites during their exodus from Egypt.

The ability to store these dry, flat biscuits for long periods was especially important for travelers, merchants, and military personnel. Such foods were essential for long journeys and military campaigns due to their long shelf life and resistance to spoilage. Ancient armies relied on flatbreads to sustain soldiers during extended periods in the field, and traders carried them while crossing deserts or seas. This practical nature of crackers has persisted through centuries, where convenience and durability were prized over flavor or texture.

The modern cracker, however, has its origins in the 18th and 19th centuries. In 1792, John Pearson of Newburyport, Massachusetts, created a biscuit called “Pearson’s Pilot Bread” to provide sailors with a long-lasting food source. Sailors required food that could withstand the moisture and heat of sea voyages without spoiling, and Pearson’s Pilot Bread was an ideal solution. It was made from just flour and water, baked to a hard, dry consistency that could last for months, if not years. This invention marked the beginning of the commercial cracker industry, as it showcased the potential of crackers beyond simple sustenance.

In 1801, Josiah Bent, another Massachusetts baker, further popularized crackers by creating "water crackers," a product that was thinner, crisper, and more refined than Pearson’s version. This innovation led to the widespread adoption of crackers, making them a staple in households and on ships alike. Bent’s water crackers were also lighter and more versatile, which encouraged their use not only for survival but also for everyday consumption as snacks or accompaniments.

Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the cracker industry evolved, introducing various flavors, shapes, and ingredients. By the late 1800s, crackers like saltines, graham crackers, and oyster crackers became household names, each with its distinct taste and purpose. Today, crackers come in numerous varieties, from simple saltines to gourmet options with herbs, seeds, and cheeses. This evolution reflects changing consumer tastes and the growing demand for diverse snack options. Cracker consumption remains a significant part of global food culture, as they continue to serve as convenient, versatile, and nutritious accompaniments to soups, cheeses, and spreads, continuing their legacy as a staple food item.
From Ancient Flatbreads to Modern Crackers: A History of a Staple Snack

The Timeless Role of Bread in Human Civilization

Bread, one of the oldest and most significant baked goods, has been a crucial part of human diets for thousands of years. Made from a variety of grains like wheat, corn, rye, rice, barley, oats, and even buckwheat, bread in its many forms has served as a staple food since ancient times.

Archaeological findings reveal that wheat was stored in human settlements as far back as 8,000 years ago. Both the ancient Greeks and Romans viewed bread as a fundamental food, engaging in early debates over the merits of white versus brown bread. Even earlier, during the Stone Age, people crafted dense cakes from barley and wheat ground with stones. A millstone, dating back 7,500 years, has been discovered, underscoring the deep-rooted history of bread-making.

The cultivation of cereals may have been a key factor in the shift from nomadic lifestyles to settled communities. When early humans discovered that certain foods could be stored through the winter and harvested in the summer, it marked a turning point in the development of civilization. This dependable food supply allowed people to develop skills beyond hunting, fishing, and herding.

Today, bread remains a global dietary staple. Modern baking innovations and the introduction of diverse grains and ingredients have expanded the variety of bread available, catering to different tastes and nutritional preferences. The popularity of whole grain and gluten-free options reflects a growing awareness of health, while the revival of artisanal bread-making highlights a renewed appreciation for traditional methods and quality ingredients.

Bread's lasting importance stems from its adaptability and cultural significance. It is more than just a food; it represents sustenance and community. From ancient civilizations to the present, bread has remained an essential part of human life, mirroring our collective history and evolving culinary traditions.
The Timeless Role of Bread in Human Civilization

The Evolution of Milling: From Ancient Agriculture to Modern Industry

The advent of agriculture marked a profound turning point in human history, fundamentally altering the lives of people. Prior to this, humans were nomadic, wandering in search of food, shelter, and resources. The development of agriculture enabled people to settle in one place, leading to the establishment of villages and the domestication of animals. This shift allowed for the accumulation of surplus food, the development of specialized labor, and the birth of complex societies.

Despite these advances, the methods for processing grains remained rudimentary for centuries. In early agricultural societies, grains were ground by hand between simple grindstones, a labor-intensive process that was necessary for making bread, one of the staples of human diet. However, as civilizations grew, especially in urban centers, the demand for more efficient methods of grain processing increased.

The Romans, known for their engineering prowess, were among the first to address this need on a larger scale. They developed the cone mill, a massive, heavy structure designed to grind large quantities of grain. These mills were powered by the labor of slaves or animals, illustrating the significant human and animal energy required to sustain growing urban populations. Around 25 BC, the Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius described an even more innovative approach: a water mill in which a paddle wheel turned the millstones via a gearwheel. This invention was revolutionary, as it harnessed the power of flowing water, reducing the need for human and animal labor.

The water mill, a testament to the ingenuity of the ancient world, experienced a resurgence in the Middle Ages. During this period, another technological marvel reached Europe: the windmill. The windmill likely originated in the Orient and may have been brought to Europe by the Crusaders, although this connection remains speculative. What is certain is that windmills were already in use in England by around 1150. Initially viewed with suspicion, windmills eventually gained acceptance and became a vital part of the European landscape, particularly in the Netherlands. Here, the windmill played a crucial role in the country's economic prosperity, especially towards the end of the Middle Ages.

The dominance of windmills continued well into the modern era, becoming a symbol of the European countryside. However, the rise of the industrial age brought about a seismic shift in milling technology. In 1786, London witnessed the construction of its first steam-powered mill, the Albion Mill, on the banks of the Thames. This mill was a significant departure from traditional milling practices, as it utilized two 50-horsepower steam engines to drive 20 pairs of millstones, enabling the mass production of flour. The mill's efficiency was so remarkable that it incited the envy and ire of its competitors, leading to its eventual destruction by fire after only five years of operation.

While steam-powered mills were met with mixed reactions in England, they found a more receptive audience in America. There, the inventor Oliver Evans developed a high-pressure steam engine that revolutionized milling once again, leading to the creation of large, automated mills capable of producing flour on an unprecedented scale.

Today, the milling industry bears little resemblance to its ancient predecessors. Modern industrial mills produce hundreds of different types of flour, catering to a wide range of applications. The scale of production is staggering, with 320 million tons of wheat flour produced annually for human consumption alone. Wheat milling has become a global industry with immense responsibility, as wheat remains the staple food for a third of the world’s population.

The journey from simple grindstones to sophisticated industrial mills underscores the incredible progress humanity has made since the dawn of agriculture. What began as a small-scale, labor-intensive process has evolved into a critical industry that helps feed billions of people worldwide. As we look to the future, the challenge will be to continue innovating in ways that ensure food security and sustainability for generations to come.
The Evolution of Milling: From Ancient Agriculture to Modern Industry

Noodles: A Millennia-Spanning Culinary Journey

The history of noodles is a fascinating journey of culinary innovation spanning millennia, reflecting the dynamic exchange of cultures and cuisines around the world. This versatile food item has evolved significantly from its humble beginnings to become a global staple.

The earliest evidence of noodles dates back to around 5000 B.C., where wheat flour, originating in the Middle East, served as the basis for the first forms of noodles. By 4000 B.C., noodles had become a staple in the Chinese diet, signifying their importance in Chinese culinary history. The Han Dynasty (206 B.C. - 220 A.D.) saw the establishment of handmade noodles, which were a significant aspect of Chinese cuisine.

By 25 A.D., the migration of noodles had rapidly spread throughout Southeast Asia, reaching Japan. By 300 A.D., the Chinese were forming whole grain paste into various noodle-like products, showcasing the early diversity in noodle-making techniques. The period between 500 and 600 A.D. marked significant cultural exchanges, with China sharing Buddhism and the art of noodle-making with Japan. During this time, buckwheat noodles became a staple of the Japanese tea ceremony, indicating the integration of noodles into Japanese culture.

In 1138, Arab geographer Idrisi traveled to Sicily and documented "triyah," a food resembling threads produced in large quantities, highlighting the early presence of noodle-like foods in the Mediterranean. By the 14th century, Marco Polo, the great Venetian adventurer, purportedly introduced noodles to Italy after his travels in the Far East. This narrative, while debated, underscores the longstanding relationship between Asian noodles and Italian pasta.

The 18th century saw the production of spaghetti in Napoli, Italy, marking a significant development in the history of pasta. By the 19th century, Japanese specialty shops were creating noodles similar to those eaten today, though they required significant preparation time and effort. Durum pasta had become common street food in Naples and much of Italy, signifying the integration of pasta into everyday Italian life.

The 20th century brought about revolutionary changes in noodle production. In 1958, the Nissin company in Japan developed the first instant noodle, introducing Chicken Ramen. By the 1970s, instant ramen had become a staple in college diets, especially in the United States, marking the global proliferation of noodles.

Today, it is widely believed that noodles originated in China as early as 5000 B.C., spreading to other Asian countries and beyond. Approximately 40% of the flour consumed in Asia is used for noodle manufacture, reflecting the centrality of noodles in Asian cuisine. The global popularity of noodles continues to grow, driven by their versatility and convenience.

The relationship between noodles and pasta extends back over 700 years, with Marco Polo's journeys in the late 13th century often cited as a pivotal moment in bringing noodles to Italy. This cross-cultural exchange has enriched culinary traditions, leading to the diverse noodle and pasta dishes enjoyed worldwide today.
Noodles: A Millennia-Spanning Culinary Journey

The Timeless Legacy of Vinegar: From Ancient Preservation to Modern Culinary Staple

Vinegar, one of the world's oldest cooking ingredients and food preservation methods, boasts a history as ancient as civilization itself. Traces of vinegar have been found in Egyptian urns dating back to around 3000 B.C., and Babylonian scrolls from approximately 5000 B.C. also document its use. The Babylonians utilized the fruit and sap of the date palm to produce alcoholic beverages that naturally transformed into vinegar upon exposure to air. This early vinegar served not only as food but also as a preserving or pickling agent, showcasing its multifaceted utility from the very beginning.

In ancient times, vinegar was known as "poor man’s wine" or posca, a staple carried by Roman legionnaires. The Bible recounts how Roman soldiers offered vinegar to Christ during the Crucifixion, highlighting its widespread availability and significance. The variety of vinegars available today is nothing new; as early as the sixth century B.C., Babylonians were producing and selling flavored vinegars made with fruit, honey, malt, and other ingredients to the gourmets of their era.

Vinegar's medicinal uses were well documented in historical texts. The Old Testament and Hippocrates, the father of modern medicine, both recorded its use for health purposes. Hippocrates recommended a mixture of cider vinegar and honey to treat coughs and colds, and throughout the ages, diluted vinegar has been revered as a revitalizing tonic.

The term "vinegar" comes from the French word "vinaigre," meaning "sour wine." Historical reports detail various methods of vinegar production and refinement. In 1100, Albucasis noted that colorless vinegar could be distilled over a low fire. By the fifteenth century, Basilius Venlentinus, a monk, discovered that distilling weak vinegar produced a stronger product.

The slow acetification method of making wine vinegar, used in France since 1670, is known as the French or Orleans process. This method, which involved filling wooden barrels with fermenting liquid and providing aeration through holes above the liquid surface, was esteemed for producing high-quality table vinegar.

Hermann Boerhaave (1668-1738), a Dutch doctor, revolutionized vinegar production by inventing a continuous process, a precursor to the automated acetification methods used today. Boerhaave emphasized the importance of the "vegetal substance" or "mother of vinegar," a slimy mass formed by acetic acid bacteria. This discovery laid the groundwork for modern vinegar production techniques.

In the seventeenth century, chemist Geber enhanced the strength of wine vinegar through distillation. In the eighteenth century, chemist Stahl identified acetic acid as the sour component of vinegar. By 1790, Loewitz demonstrated that passing weak acetic acid over charcoal increased its strength. In 1778, Durande created a more concentrated product, glacial acetic acid, which marked a significant advancement in vinegar refinement.

The first complete analysis of acetic acid was conducted by Berzelius in 1814. In 1822, German chemist Döbereiner wrote the now well-known chemical equation for the formation of acetic acid: C2H5OH + O2 = CH3COOH + H2O. This equation reflects the transformation of alcohol and oxygen into acetic acid and water, foundational knowledge for vinegar production.

Building on Döbereiner’s work, Schutzenbach introduced the quick vinegar manufacturing process in 1823. This method involved growing bacteria on materials like beech wood shavings, which formed a thick slime coating that facilitated rapid vinegar production.

For most of human history, acetic acid was produced from fermented liquids by acetic acid bacteria of the genus Acetobacter. However, the microbiological basis of vinegar production was not understood until Louis Pasteur elucidated it in his 1858 work "Études sur le Vinaigre."

In 1955, Joslyn reported on Hromatka's development of submerged acetification, a method that allowed for even more efficient and large-scale vinegar production. This innovation marked a significant milestone in vinegar's evolution, ensuring its continued relevance in culinary and preservation practices worldwide.

Today, vinegar remains a versatile and essential ingredient in kitchens globally, a testament to its enduring legacy and the continuous advancements in its production.
The Timeless Legacy of Vinegar: From Ancient Preservation to Modern Culinary Staple

History of Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.)

Thyme has been used historically for cosmetic, culinary, medicinal purposes and even presumed magical qualities. It is thought that the ancient Sumerians were the first to grow thyme, perhaps as long as 5,000 years ago. The Sumerians recognized its minty-clove aroma as a hint to its potential for medicinal purposes.

The ancient Egyptians used thyme as an embalming fluid. In ancient Greece, they used thyme as an incense in temples and added it to bathwater. The Egyptians also used thyme as a pain reliever, and it was included in many of their medicines.

Thyme’s use as a curative was continued by the Ancient Greeks and Romans. The Greeks used sprigs of thyme as a preservative for fruit and wine, and drank tinctures of thyme to ward off nightmares.

The name Thyme, in its Greek form, was first given to the plant by the Greeks as a derivative of a word which meant ‘to fumigate,’ either because they used it as incense, for its balsamic odour, or because it was taken as a type of all sweet-smelling herbs. It also may come from the Greek word thymon, meaning courage.

Romans burnt thyme to deter dangerous animals, and used thyme to flavor cheese and alcoholic beverages. The Romans thought that eating thyme before or during a meal would cure poisons, making it especially popular among Roman emperors. Roman soldiers bathed in thyme, as this was believed to provide vigor. They are also offered it as a cure people for who were melancholic or shy.

Hippocrates, who lived around 460 BC to 370 BC and is known today as “the father of Western medicine,” recommended thyme for respiratory diseases and conditions.

In the European Middle Ages, the herb was placed beneath pillows to aid sleep and ward off nightmares. In this period, women would also often give knights and warriors gifts that included thyme leaves as it was believed to bring courage to the bearer.

When the Black Death hit, thyme was used in so many medicines as a treatment. In the Victorian Era, nurses would often bandage wounds with a thyme solution.

In modern times, thyme oil is commonly used in manufacturing as a constituent of soaps, cosmetics, mouthwash and toothpaste. Red thyme oil is used in perfumes.
History of Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.)

History of essential oils

Spices have been used since time immemorial man, but were later used extensively for perfumery and flavor purposes.

The first records of essential oils come from ancient India, Persia, and Egypt; and both Greece and Rome conducted extensive trade in odoriferous oils and ointments with the countries of the Orient.

Their perspective properties were observed much later when the components responsible for the aroma were identified. During the 1st half of 19th century, the essential oils industry took a proper shape because of increasing demand.

Essential oils have been used by ancient Egyptians in medication, perfumery, and in the craft of planning bodies for entombment through preservation. Other ancient cultures recognized the physical and psychological benefits of scented ointments and oils, including China and India, during the same period as ancient Egypt.

In the ancient countries of the Orient, in Greece, and in Rome the essence of flowers and roots was extracted by placing them in fatty oils. The glass bottles containing these mixtures were warmed in the sun, and finally the odoriferous oils were separated from the solid materials.

Hippocrates, known as the father of modern medicine, maintained 2,500 years ago that “the key to good health rests on having a daily aromatic bath and scented massage’. Dioscorides wrote about aromatics in his Materia Medica about 100 AD.

In Asian region, the Vedas which are some 3000 years old, classified the employments of these aromatic essences for remedial and worship purposes. Among the materials mentioned in such writings, from the earliest record times down to the period in which Kalidasa lived (470 AD), are the flowers of henna, jasmine, champak, lotus, mango, hycianth, rose, lily, sandal wood and vetiver roots.

In the 10th century, Arabic physician Avicenna left us valuable written documents describing 800 plants and their effects on the human body. He is also credited with the development of the distillation process for essential oils.

The first scientific report about preservation potential of spices, described antimicrobial activity of cinnamon oil against spores of anthrax bacilli in the 1880s.
History of essential oils

Carrots in ancient world

Wild carrot is indigenous to Europe, Northern Africa, and parts of western Asia, and seeds have been found dating from Mesolithic times, approximately 10,000 years ago. Home of carrots and its numerous cousins can be tracked to dry and hot lands of Iran and Afghanistan. Earliest evidence of its use there was dated to 3000 BC.

Afghanistan was thought to be the first centre of carrot diversity, and Turkey was the second. Almost five thousand years ago, carrots were first cultivated in the Iranian Plateau (Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran) and then in the Persian Empire. Long before carrot was domesticated, wild carrot had become widespread, as seeds were found in Europe dating back nearly 5,000 years ago.

Original carrots were purple and yellow, initially described in the 10th century in Iran and northern Arabia.

Evidence for purple carrots is seen in Egypt as far back as 2000 BC. Many other colourful varieties were later found in Asia and there is also evidence of their use in Greece during the Hellenistic period.

Yellow carrots were preferred in northern Europe until the development of orange carrots in The Netherlands in the 18th century. White carrots were noted in Europe and red carrots are thought to have originated in China around this time.

Carrot (karo) was first mentioned in the third century BC by Diphilus of Siphnos. Theophrastus (371-287 BC) in Enquiry into Plants IX;15 states that ‘daukon’ grows in Arcadia and is saffron coloured.

After the fall of Rome carrots stopped being widely seen in Europe until they the Arabs reintroduced them to Europe through the Andalusia in the Middle Ages around 1100.This time the edible carrot caught on, with violet carrots being grown in Italy and used in desserts.

Throughout the Dark Ages and early Middle Ages, carrots were the main starchy vegetables for ordinary people in Europe, as they were easy to grow and store and a very welcome food to eat during the lean winter months.

By 13th century carrots travelled from Persia to Asia, reaching distant Japan. During same time, European carrot started being cultivated in gardens and fields of France and Germany.

The orange carrots known so well today only originated in the 17th century, produced by the Dutch following a cultural selection process.
Carrots in ancient world

History of garlic

Originally from Central Asia, garlic is one of the earliest of cultivated plants. Historical evidence shows it was uses by the Babylonians 4500 years ago.

Sumerians (2600–2100 BC) were actively utilizing the garlic healing qualities, and there is a belief that they brought the garlic to China, from where it was later spread to Japan and Korea.

The Ebers Codex, and Egyptian medical papyrus dating to about 1550 B.C.E. mentions garlic as an effective remedy for a variety of ailments.

In ancient Egypt, the workers who had to build the great pyramids were fed garlic daily, and the Bible mentions that the Hebrews enjoyed their food with garlic.

Garlic was used as performance enhancing agent in sports by original Olympic athletes in Ancient Greece.

Early men of medicine such as Hippocrates, Pliny and Aristotle espoused a number of therapeutic uses for this botanical.

In the Middle Ages, Arabic physicians contributed to a large extent for the expansion of the usage of garlic as a remedy. In the same period, the retrograde Western Europe knew nothing about garlic.

Garlic was brought into Great Britain in 1548, from the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, where it was present in abundance. The French, Spanish and Portuguese introduced garlic to the New World. Garlic was rare in traditional English cuisine. It was in the first quarter of the 20th century, when garlic was found in ethnic dishes in U.S.

During 1920’s garlic was referred as Bronx vanilla, halitosis, and Italian perfume. It was in 1940, when garlic gained its value as a major ingredient rather than a minor seasoning agent.

In the first world war, garlic was widely used as an antiseptic to prevent gangrene and today people use garlic to help prevent atherosclerosis and improve high blood pressure.
History of garlic

History and origin of apples

Its primary wild ancestor is Malus sieversii whose range is centered at the border between western China and the former Soviet Union originated 4000 to 10000 years ago. This species is diverse and wild trees bearing the full range of forms, colors, and tastes are found in Kazakhstan and other independent countries of Central Asia formed from the breakup of the Soviet Union.

The cultivated apple then underwent hybridization with its wild relatives during its spread from the Tian Shan Mountains westward along the Silk Route.

Apples were certainly one of the earliest fruits to be gathered by people, and their domestication was probably preceded by a long period of unintentional planting via garbage disposal.

Based on combined archaeological and molecular data, it seems likely that, in the late Neolithic or early Bronze Age, travelers on the great trade routes that ran from central China to the Danube, carried the seed of the Central Asian wild apple west, either in saddle bags or horses’guts.

It was known to the Greeks and Romans and mentioned by Theophrastus in the third century BC. It is difficult to determine exactly when the apple was first domesticated, but the Greeks and Romans were growing apples at least 2,500 years ago. They actively selected superior seedlings and were budding and grafting 2,000 years ago.

Grafting is a practice that is thought to have begun about 3800 years ago based on a cuneiform description of budwood importation for grape in Mesopotamia. Indirect evidence has been obtained for the cultivation of apples 3000 years ago in Mesopotamia.

The Romans probably learned apple grafting, cultivation, harvesting, and storage from the Greeks, and brought the production chain technology to the rest of their empire.

The Romans brought the whole package to Western Europe and, for the last 2000 years, the domesticated apple has diversified and flourished worldwide. It was dispersed to the New World by European settlers during the sixteenth century.

During the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, M. domestica cultivars found or bred in Europe, Russia, North America, New Zealand, Japan, and Australia were introduced throughout the world and form the basis for most current commercial apple production.
History and origin of apples

Curry leaves in India

India is rightfully called as the “Botanical garden of the world”. It is the land of several medicinal plants and herbs that are traditionally used to cure ailments. Murraya koenigii, is one such plant, also called the curry leaf. It belongs to the family Rutaceae.

The species name commemorates the botanist called Johann Konig. The genus Murray commemorates Swedish physician and botanist Johann Andreas Murray who died in 1791.

In India, curry leaves have been used in traditional Ayurvedic medicine since ancient times and are believed to have anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties. Ayurveda is an ancient Indian medical science, the origin of which can be traced back to the Vedas, which are the oldest available classics of the world.

The importance and the use of curry leaves as a flavoring for vegetables is described in early Tamil literature dating back to the 1st to 4th centuries AD.

Its use is also mentioned a few centuries later in Kannada literature.

The small, shiny, pungent leaves are still closely associated with South India where the word 'curry' originates from the Tamil 'kari' for spiced sauces. An alternative name for curry leaf throughout India is kari-pattha.

The leaves are used in similar way to the bay leaf in western countries and are employed in fresh, dried and powdered forms.

Curry leaf trees are naturalized in forests and abandoned land throughout the Indian subcontinent except in the higher parts of the Himalayas. From the Ravi River in Pakistan its distribution extends eastwards towards Assam in India and Chittagong in Bangladesh, and southwards to Tamil Nadu in India.

They were then spread by Indian migrants and are widely cultivated in home garden across Asia.
Curry leaves in India

History of food packaging

For millenniums, the most common material used to protect goods were paper and glass. People understood the role of package as meant to protect their product on the way home from market.

Egypt seems to have pioneered food packaging. Mummies were packed with all articles of daily use including food. Egypt was one of the first countries to have used paper (from Papyrus plant).

It is also known that Egyptians, Phoenicians, Persians and Turks made bottles by inflating liquid glass in the years B.C. 3000.

There are references how paper was in rise for packaging food as well (that included vegetables and spices). In the prehistoric times, however, only natural materials were available and used for packaging which included leaves, animal skin, bark, coconut shells and dried vegetable skins etc. These materials have been used since the earliest times for domestic storage and local sales of foods. However, with the exception of glazed pottery, they have poor barrier properties and are only used to contain foods and keep them clean.

Subsequently, baskets of reeds, wooden boxes, wooden barrels, woven bags, etc. came into use. Pottery vases, water storage containers came later. Since the early ages of history, people have used packaging to consume, preserve and transport food.

The use of tinplate for packaging dates back to the 18th century. The first corrugated box was produced commercially in 1817 in England. Gair discovered that by cutting and creasing he could make prefabricated paperboard boxes.

The years 1930–1940 were probably the most important decade in the history of plastics as today’s major thermoplastics (PS, PVC and the poly-olefins) were developed.

The use of plastics in food packaging has gone up several folds during the last two to three decades owing to the several advantages offered by them as compared to other materials.

Packaging advancements in the early 20th century included Bakelite closures on bottles, transparent cellophane over wraps, that increased processing efficiency and improved food safety. Aluminum and plastics were also incorporated later.

Traditional packaging couldn't stand the rigors of World War II which led to Military Standard or tough "mil spec" (military specifications) in the 1940s. In the middle of 1940s, further study of synthetic polymers by DuPont chemists synthesized polyethylene terephthalate (known as PET) used for manufacturing of plastic bottles until this day.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) revolutionized food packaging. It has excellent resistance to chemicals (acids and bases), grease, and oil; good flow characteristics; and stable electrical properties. It formed a seal without clinging to itself, food or to the container. It has low permeability to oxygen, water vapors and flavors, however there have been concerns about its toxicity.

The manufacturing technology changed the whole concept of packaging after the Industrial Revolution in eighteenth century when manufacturers were forced to develop more resilient types of protection so the products could be transported from factory to shop and later to customer’s home. In 21st century food packaging has evolved as a specialized industry.
History of food packaging

Ancient history of pomegranate fruit

Pomegranate are originated from central Asia. Pomegranate has an important place in the ancient cultures of the Mediterranean countries. It was cultivated in ancient Egypt and in early Greece and Italy. The fruit which was described by the Greek botanist Theophrastus about 2350 years before the present (BP) and is mentioned in many Greek and Turkish myths.

Edible pomegranates were firstly reported to be cultivated in Iran during 3000 BC. It was recorded that pomegranate cultivation in about 2200 B.C comes from the ancient civilization of Sumer, located in the lower Tigris and Euphrates valley, approximately the area of present-day Basra, Iraq. It is believed that the pomegranate was brought into the area by people who were migrating from the Zagros Mountains— on the present-day Iran and Iraq border.

Phoenicians established Mediterranean Sea colonies in North Africa and brought pomegranates to Tunisia and Egypt by 2000 BC. The Phoenicians were great traders who sent many ships to ports in the Mediterranean Basin.

During that time, pomegranates also naturalized around the world and reached China by 100 BC over the Silk Road.

It was probably introduced into Greece and the areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, as far west as Spain and Portugal by ancient sailors and traders.

Ancient traders in Central Asia and the Middle East referred to the pomegranate as the “fruit of paradise.” Arabian caravans carried the fruit with other trade goods and spices, as well as the water and food they transported to provision the travelers.

Cultivation of the pomegranates in the Roman Empire and Spain is estimated to be in 800s. It was introduced in the Indian Peninsula from Iran during the 1st century AD and was found growing in Indonesia in 1416 AD.

The Spanish sailors brought pomegranates to the New World and some missionaries introduced pomegranate in Mexico and California. The first clear evidence that the pomegranate was in the area to become the United States was in the early 1700s, when they were grown in Spanish Florida and English Georgia.
Ancient history of pomegranate fruit

History of flaxseed

The Latin name of the flaxseed is Linum usitatissimum, which means “very useful”. Early records show that it has been grown since the beginning of civilization, and people all over the world have celebrated its usefulness throughout the ages.

Flaxseed, of Mesopotamic origin, has been cultivated since 5000 BC. It used in Egypt to wrap mummies while Jewish high priests of the Old Testament wore garments made from flax.

History also reveals that Babylonians cultivated flaxseed as early as 3000 B.C. and their burial chambers depict flax cultivation and clothing from flax fibers.

It also was being used until the 1990s principally for the fabrication of cloths and papers. Flax was first introduced in United States by colonists, primarily to produce fiber for clothing.

Before World War II flaxseed had been commonly used as food and it was forgotten until its comeback in the 1990s.
History of flaxseed

Food History: Rice cultivation in Indus Valley Civilization

Agriculture emerged in the Indus River Valley when foraging Harappan communities settled in the lush lands between the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush mountains in present-day Pakistan.

At its height, around 2600 BC, the Indus Civilization included nearly a thousand sites dispersed throughout northwestern India and Pakistan, ranging from village farming communities and small towns to several fully developed city complexes housing large populations, with tens of thousands of people.

Rice is the crop of Ganga Valley region and its presence in the economy of pre-Harappan, Harappan and contemporaneous Ahar culture (Banas Valley Culture) in the northwestern part of the subcontinent has also been recorded earlier. The evidence of rice at Kanmer was recorded from Mature and Late Harappan phases.

New research on three archaeological sites of the famed Indus Valley civilization (3000-1500 BC) in north-west India has revealed that domesticated rice farming in South Asia began far earlier than previously believed. A research team led by University of Cambridge archaeologists found evidence of domesticated rice in South Asia as much as 430 years earlier. The evidence for rice has come from Lothal and Rangpur in the form of husks embedded in pottery.

The team’s findings, published in the Journal of Archaeological Science and the journal Antiquity, also confirm that Indus farmers were the earliest people to use multi-cropping strategies across both seasons, growing foods during summer (rice, millets and beans) and winter (wheat, barley and pulses), which required different watering regimes.

There is clear-cut evidence of rice dispersal from China to India in the form of indica at eastern India or Gangetic basin. This process of crops transformation can be called a process of loans of Chinese crops towards India. A Chinese legend depicts that during the 12thcentury B.C, the trade of India with ancient China occurred. This trade may have crucial in the spreading of ancient crops, especially ancient rice.

Fertile soils and a steady water supply supported the cultivation of crops, and the river also provided transportation, enabling commerce. Rice and millet agriculture became widespread in regions watered by the monsoon rains, the use of iron tools, the horse and camel became commonplace.
Food History: Rice cultivation in Indus Valley Civilization

Ancient oats

Oats (Avena spp.) were one of the first cereals cultivated by man. They were first grown as weeds in barley and wheat fields in Mesopotamia in about 10,500 BC, though in cloudier, wetter and cooler Europe, oats were selected for cultivation over wheat and barley by about the 7000 BC.

The ancient Greeks are believed to be the first people to have made a recognizable porridge from oats.

Oats were also weeds in ancient fields of wheat and barley in the Near East and certain of them came to be cultivated, though at what date remains uncertain. The Roman historian, Pliny, complained that oats were a highly aggressive weed in cereal crops planted in moist environments though Pliny noted that oats were good for forage production.

In China oats were cultivated already in Han times. Some says that the early oats of China were Avena nuda, presumably introduced from an east European center of domestication.
Ancient oats

Wheat in ancient India

Indian’s climate is dominated by the monsoon, a wind that brings alternating seasons of hot, dry weather and heavy rain and flooding. In the drier west and north, wheat was the crop from early times.

Wheat was used by the people of the Indus Valley Civilization. Grains of wheat have been found from various sites of Indus valley civilization. Historians believe that the Harappans ate mostly wheat, rice and lentils. They use the wheat to make stews, soups and flat bread called chapati.

According to research bread wheat was cultivated in west Asia long before the date of the earliest finds in India, it remains certain that the northwest of the Indian subcontinent is a major center of diversity of the species, T. sphaerococcum, which is a wheat of great antiquity and which has been found in the excavations at Mohenjo-daro dating back to 2300 BC , is supposed to have originated in the northwestern are of the Indian subcontinent.

Emperor Anoshirwan (531 AD to 579 AD) arrange for a land survey and determine the amount of land tax to be paid by tillers on the field growing of wheat, and also other crops.
Wheat in ancient India

History of leavened bread

Unleavened bread was the primitive food of man, in the early stages of civilization and before he learned to leaven it. It was adopted by the Jews on their departure across the desert from Goshen, as the simplest mode of preparing bread in the wilderness; and has ever been the daily food of the Arabian nomad.

In the ancient Near East leaven was known from the third millennium BC onwards. Egyptians discovered that a mixture of flour and water left for about of time to ferment, increased in volume, and, after baking along with other fresh dough, it produced soft and light breads.

In Greece, bread was a food solely for consumption on wealthy homes. The Greeks used leavening for sourdough was adopted from Egypt about 800 BC. The Roman derived it from the Greeks, and until about 200 BC, when bakers were first established in Rome, the term ‘pulse eating nation’ was applied to the Romans by way of reproach.

The first time that leaven in its negative form, occurs in the Bible is in Genesis 19:3 where that Lot ‘did baked unleavened bread’ for the angels and ‘they did eat’, which shows most plainly that leaven, a common commodity , was the appropriate food doomed, wicked Sodom.

Leaven was forbidden to the Hebrews during the seven days of the Passover, in memory of their ancestor who when they went out of Egypt, were obliged to carry unleavened meal with them and to make bread in haste.
History of leavened bread

Ancient history of cayenne pepper

The cayenne pepper has been used in Africa for more than 10,000 years long before ancient Egyptian civilization.

Although cayenne was probably cultivated for hundred even thousands of years in the tropical Americas, Africa, India and other tropical areas of the world, Columbus seems to have been the first Westerner to take conscious note of food flavored with this pungent herb.

The folk remedy uses of cayenne pepper are quite extensive. Since ancient times, it has been used by healers to cure panoply of ailments, asthma, fevers, sore throats and other respiratory tract infections, digestive disturbance, poultices and cancers.

Columbus brought cayenne back to Europe, whey it served as a substitute for black pepper, which since it had to be imported from Asia at the time, was very expensive.
Ancient history of cayenne pepper

Pistachio nuts during ancient times

Pistachio has been part of the human diet at least since the late Paleolithic era. The nuts of Pistacia vera were known in Persia as pisteh, from which the name pistachio is derived. Pistacia lentiscus, the ‘mastic tree’ one of the other Pistacia species, has been cultivated since ancient times in Greece and the Greek island of Chios as a source of mastic.

The species was first cultivated about 3000 years ago in Persia. From there the plant spread in Roman times throughout the rest of the Mediterranean region.

Pistachios grew wild in the high desert region during Biblical times. The Queen of Sheba was especially fond of pistachio nuts and is said to have monopolized the limited pistachio output of Assyria for herself and her court favorites.

A passion for pistachios was also exemplified by Nebuchadnezzar, the ancient king of Babylon. It is said that in his hanging gardens he had planted pistachio trees.

Akbar the Great, a Mogul Emperor, would hold royal feasts that were fit for a king, He usually served chickens that had been fed pistachio nuts for at least six to eight weeks to enhance their flavor.

According to Pliny, the pistachio was introduced to Italy from Syria during the reign of Tiberius, early in the first century AD. It was brought by Vitellius, father of the emperor, who served in the Levant between 35 and 39 AD. Subsequently its cultivation spread to other Mediterranean countries.
Pistachio nuts during ancient times